tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56290914270806586612024-03-08T14:25:27.169-08:00~jia's dream~jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-60469771190122406562012-03-18T18:00:00.001-07:002012-03-18T18:00:05.724-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://xiaowen0719.blogspot.com/2012/03/input-device.html" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration: none;">Input device</a></h3>
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In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computing">computing</a>, an <b>input device</b> is any <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Peripheral">peripheral</a> (piece of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information processing system">information processing system</a> such as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer">computer</a> or other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_appliance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information appliance">information appliance</a>. Input and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Output device">output devices</a> make up the hardware interface between a computer and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scanner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Image scanner">scanner</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_degrees_of_freedom" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Six degrees of freedom">6DOF</a> controller.</div>
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Many input devices can be classified according to:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)</li>
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Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can further be classified according to:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(computing_WIMP)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pointer (computing WIMP)">pointer</a> appears. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreens</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Light pen">light pens</a> involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input include the mouse and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trackball" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Trackball">trackball</a>.</li>
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Direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be either absolute or relative. For example, digitizing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_tablet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphics tablet">graphics tablets</a> that do not have an embedded screen involve indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an absolute input mode, but they may also be set up to simulate a relative input mode where the stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-91361214435799305102012-03-18T17:59:00.003-07:002012-03-18T17:59:46.028-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://xiaowen0719.blogspot.com/2012/03/output-device.html" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration: none;">Output device</a></h3>
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Any device that <a href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/output" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #0055cc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">outputs</a> information from a computer is called, not surprisingly, an output device. Since most information from a computer is output in either a visual or auditory format, the most common output devices are the <a href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/monitor" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #0055cc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">monitor</a> and speakers. These two devices provide instant feedback to the user's <a href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/input" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #0055cc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">input</a>, such as displaying characters as they are typed or playing a song selected from a playlist.</div>
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While monitors and speakers are the most common output devices, there are many others. Some examples include headphones, printers, projectors, lighting control systems, audio recording devices, and robotic machines. A computer without an output device connected to it is pretty useless, since the output is what we interact with. Anyone who has ever had a monitor or printer stop working knows just how true this is. Of course, it is also important to be able to send information to the computer, which requires an <a href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/inputdevice" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #0055cc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">input device</a>.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-20023313186732886472012-03-18T17:59:00.001-07:002012-03-18T17:59:30.360-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://xiaowen0719.blogspot.com/2012/03/storage.html" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration: none;">storage</a></h3>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19px;">In a computer, storage is the place where data is held in an electromagnetic or optical form for access by a computer </span><a href="http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/processor" style="background-color: white; color: #663366; font-family: Calibri, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">processor</a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19px;">. There are two general usages.</span><br /><div style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 20px;">
1) Storage is frequently used to mean the devices and data connected to the computer through input/output operations - that is, hard disk and tape systems and other forms of storage that don't include computer memory and other in-computer storage. For the enterprise, the options for this kind of storage are of much greater variety and expense than that related to memory. This meaning is probably more common in the IT industry than meaning 2.</div>
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2) In a more formal usage, storage has been divided into: (1) primary storage, which holds data in <a href="http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/memory" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">memory</a> (sometimes called random access memory or <a href="http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/RAM" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">RAM</a></div>
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LEARN MORE</h4>
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<a href="http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/RAM" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;"></a>) and other "built-in" devices such as the processor's L1 cache, and (2) <a href="http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/secondary-auxiliary-storage" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">secondary storage</a>, which holds data on <a href="http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/hard-disk" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">hard disk</a>s, tapes, and other devices requiring input/output operations.</div>
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<a href="http://itknowledgeexchange.techtarget.com/itanswers/tag/storage/?Offer=def-storage" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;"><span class="textHighlite"><b style="font-weight: bold;">Ask your storage questions at ITKnowledgeExchange.com</b></span></a></div>
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Primary storage is much faster to access than secondary storage because of the proximity of the storage to the processor or because of the nature of the storage devices. On the other hand, secondary storage can hold much more data than primary storage.</div>
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In addition to RAM, primary storage includes read-only memory (<a href="http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/read-only-memory" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">ROM</a>) and <a href="http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/L1-and-L2" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">L1 and L2</a> <a href="http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/cache" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">cache</a>memory. In addition to hard disks, secondary storage includes a range of device types and technologies, including diskettes, <a href="http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Zip-drive" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Zip drive</a>s, redundant array of independent disks (RAID) systems, and holographic storage. Devices that hold storage are collectively known as<a href="http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/storage-medium" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">storage media</a>.</div>
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A somewhat antiquated term for primary storage is <i>main storage</i> and a somewhat antiquated term for secondary storage is <i>auxiliary storage</i>. Note that, to add to the confusion, there is an additional meaning for primary storage that distinguishes actively used storage from <a href="http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/backup-storage" style="color: #663366; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;">backup storage</a>.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-55142088520588613942012-03-18T17:56:00.001-07:002012-03-18T17:56:32.843-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://xiaowen0719.blogspot.com/2012/03/motherboard.html" style="color: #2288bb; text-decoration: none;">motherboard</a></h3>
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The main <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/printed_circuit_board.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">circuit board</a> of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the<a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/connector.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">connectors</a> for attaching additional <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/board.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">boards</a>. Typically, the motherboard contains the <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CPU.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">CPU</a>, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/BIOS.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">BIOS</a>, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/memory.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">memory</a>, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/mass_storage.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">mass storage</a> interfaces, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/serial.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">serial</a> and<a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/parallel_port.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">parallel ports</a>, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/expansion_slot.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">expansion slots</a>, and all the <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/controller.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">controllers</a> required to control standard <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">peripheral devices</a>, such as the <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/display_screen.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">display screen</a>, <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/K/keyboard.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">keyboard</a>, and <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/disk_drive.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">disk drive</a>. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/chipset.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">chipset</a>.</div>
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On most <a href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/PC.html" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc3300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">PCs</a>, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-53028797123110010112012-03-18T17:40:00.001-07:002012-03-18T17:40:46.144-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://sinwaitan.blogspot.com/2012/03/privacy.html" style="color: #8e7cc3; text-decoration: none;">PRIVACY</a></h3>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy (from Latin: privatus "separated from the rest, deprived of something, esp. office, participation in the government", from privo "to deprive") is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves and thereby">Privasi (dari Latin: privatus ". Dipisahkan dari yang lain, kekurangan sesuatu, esp pejabat, penyertaan dalam kerajaan", dari privo "untuk menafikan") adalah keupayaan individu atau kumpulan untuk memencilkan diri atau maklumat tentang diri mereka dan dengan itu </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="reveal themselves selectively.">mendedahkan diri mereka terpilih. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals, but share basic common themes.">Sempadan dan kandungan dari apa yang dianggap swasta berbeza antara budaya dan individu, tetapi berkongsi tema yang sama yang asas. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy is sometimes related to anonymity, the wish to remain unnoticed or unidentified in the public realm.">Privasi ini kadang-kadang yang berkaitan untuk dikenali, ingin kekal tanpa disedari atau tidak dikenali dalam alam awam. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="When something is private to a person, it usually means there is something within them that is considered inherently special or personally sensitive.">Apabila sesuatu yang peribadi kepada seseorang, biasanya ia bermakna ada sesuatu dalam diri mereka yang dianggap memang khas atau peribadi sensitif. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The degree to which private information is exposed therefore depends on how the public will receive this information, which differs between places and over time.">Ijazah yang maklumat peribadi terdedah itu bergantung kepada bagaimana orang ramai akan menerima maklumat ini, yang berbeza antara tempat dan dari masa ke masa.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy partially intersects security, including for instance the concepts of appropriate use, as well as protection, of information.">Privasi sebahagian bersilang keselamatan, termasuk misalnya konsep penggunaan yang sesuai, perlindungan serta maklumat.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasion of privacy by the government, corporations or individuals is part of many countries' privacy laws, and in some cases, constitutions.">Hak yang tidak tertakluk kepada pencerobohan unsanctioned privasi oleh kerajaan, syarikat-syarikat atau individu adalah sebahagian daripada undang-undang privasi banyak negara, dan dalam sesetengah kes, perlembagaan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Almost all countries have laws which in some way limit privacy; an example of this would be law concerning taxation, which normally require the sharing of information about personal income or earnings.">Hampir semua negara mempunyai undang-undang yang di sesetengah privasi had cara; contoh ini akan menjadi undang-undang berkaitan dengan cukai, yang biasanya memerlukan perkongsian maklumat tentang pendapatan atau pendapatan peribadi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In some countries individual privacy may conflict with freedom of speech laws and some laws may require public disclosure of information which would be considered private in other countries and cultures.">Di sesetengah negara privasi individu mungkin bercanggah dengan kebebasan undang-undang pertuturan dan beberapa undang-undang mungkin memerlukan pendedahan umum maklumat yang akan dipertimbangkan swasta dalam negara dan budaya lain. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy may be voluntarily sacrificed, normally in exchange for perceived benefits and very often with specific dangers and losses, although this is a very strategic view of human relationships.">Privasi secara sukarela boleh dikorbankan, biasanya dalam pertukaran untuk manfaat yang dilihat dan selalunya dengan bahaya dan kerugian khusus, walaupun ini adalah pandangan yang sangat strategik hubungan manusia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Academics who are economists, evolutionary theorists, and research psychologists describe revealing privacy as a 'voluntary sacrifice', for instance by willing participants in sweepstakes or competitions.">Ahli akademik yang pakar ekonomi, ahli teori evolusi, dan psikologi penyelidikan menjelaskan mendedahkan privasi sebagai 'pengorbanan sukarela', misalnya oleh peserta bersedia dalam loteri atau pertandingan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the business world, a person may volunteer personal details (often for advertising purposes) in order to gamble on winning a prize.">Dalam dunia perniagaan, seseorang boleh secara sukarela butir-butir peribadi (selalunya untuk tujuan pengiklanan) untuk berjudi memenangi hadiah. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Personal information which is voluntarily shared but subsequently stolen or misused can lead to identity theft.">Maklumat peribadi yang dikongsi secara sukarela tetapi kemudiannya dicuri atau disalahgunakan boleh membawa kepada kecurian identiti.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy, as the term is generally understood in the West, is not a universal concept and remained virtually unknown in some cultures until recent times.">Privasi, sebagai istilah umumnya difahami di Barat, tidak adalah satu konsep yang universal dan tinggal tidak diketahui dalam beberapa budaya sehingga masa-masa kebelakangan ini.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Most cultures, however, recognize the ability of individuals to withhold certain parts of their personal information from wider society - a figleaf over the genitals being an ancient example.">Kebanyakan budaya, bagaimanapun, mengiktiraf keupayaan individu untuk menahan bahagian-bahagian tertentu maklumat peribadi mereka daripada masyarakat yang lebih luas - satu figleaf atas kemaluan yang menjadi contoh purba.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The word "privacy" is sometimes regarded as untranslatable[1] by linguists.">Dengan perkataan "privasi" kadang-kadang dianggap sebagai tidak boleh diterjemah [1] oleh ahli bahasa. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Many languages lack a specific word for "privacy".">Banyak bahasa tidak mempunyai perkataan yang khusus untuk "privasi". </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Such languages either use a complex description to translate the term (such as Russian combine meaning of уединение - solitude, секретность - secrecy, and частная жизнь - private life) or borrow English "privacy" (as Indonesian Privasi or Italian la privacy).[">Bahasa itu sama ada dengan menggunakan penerangan yang kompleks untuk menterjemahkan istilah (seperti Rusia menggabungkan makna уединение - kesendirian, секретность - kerahsiaan, dan частная жизнь - kehidupan peribadi). Atau meminjam Bahasa Inggeris "privasi" (sebagai Privasi Indonesia atau Itali la privasi) [ </span><span title="1]">1]</span><span title="[edit]Types of privacy"><br /></span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The term "privacy" means many things in different contexts.">Istilah "privasi" ertinya banyak perkara dalam konteks yang berbeza. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Different people, cultures, and nations have a wide variety of expectations about how much privacy a person is entitled to or what constitutes an invasion of privacy.">Orang yang berlainan, budaya, dan negara-negara mempunyai pelbagai jangkaan kira-kira berapa banyak privasi seseorang berhak atau apa yang dimaksudkan dengan pencerobohan privasi.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Brief description of privacy">[Sunting] Penerangan ringkas privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Physical privacy could be defined as preventing "intrusions into one's physical space or solitude"[2] This would include such concerns as:">Privasi fizikal boleh ditakrifkan sebagai menghalang "pencerobohan ke dalam ruang fizikal atau bersendirian" [2] Ini termasuk kebimbangan seperti:</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="preventing intimate acts or hiding one's body from others for the purpose of modesty; apart from being dressed this can be achieved by walls, fences, privacy screens, cathedral glass, partitions between urinals, by being far away from others, on a bed by a">mencegah perbuatan intim atau menyembunyikan tubuh seseorang daripada orang lain untuk tujuan kesopanan; selain daripada yang berpakaian ini boleh boleh dicapai oleh dinding, pagar, skrin privasi kaca gereja, partition antara tempat buang air kecil, dengan jauh daripada orang lain, di atas katil oleh </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="bed sheet or a blanket, when changing clothes by a towel, etc.; to what extent these measures also prevent acts being heard varies">cadar atau selimut, apabila menukar pakaian oleh tuala, dan sebagainya; sejauh mana langkah-langkah ini juga mencegah perbuatan yang didengar berbeza</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="video, of aptly named graphic, or intimate, acts, behaviors or body parts">video, yang dinamakan grafik, atau intim, perbuatan, tingkah laku atau badan bahagian</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="preventing unwelcome searching of one's personal possessions">menghalang pencarian yang tidak diingini harta benda peribadi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="preventing unauthorized access to one's home, vehicle or man-cave">menghalang capaian yang tidak dibenarkan untuk kenderaan rumah, atau lelaki-gua</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="medical privacy, the right to make fundamental medical decisions without governmental coercion or third party review, most widely applied to questions of contraception">privasi perubatan, hak untuk membuat keputusan perubatan asas tanpa paksaan kerajaan atau kajian pihak ketiga, yang paling banyak digunakan untuk soalan kontrasepsi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="An example of the legal basis for the right to physical privacy is the US Fourth Amendment which guarantees "the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures".[3] Most">Satu contoh asas undang-undang hak untuk privasi fizikal Pindaan Keempat AS yang menjamin hak rakyat untuk menjadi selamat di orang, rumah-rumah mereka, kertas, dan kesan, terhadap carian sawan dan tidak munasabah ". [3] Kebanyakan </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="countries have laws regarding trespassing and property rights also determine the right of physical privacy.">negara mempunyai undang-undang yang mengenai menceroboh dan hak harta juga menentukan hak privasi fizikal.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Physical privacy may be a matter of cultural sensitivity, personal dignity, and/or shyness.">Privasi fizikal mungkin menjadi perkara sensitiviti budaya, maruah peribadi dan / atau malu. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="There may also be concerns about safety, if for example one is wary of becoming the victim of crime or stalking.[4] Civil inattention is a process whereby individuals are able to maintain their privacy within a crowd.">Mungkin juga terdapat kebimbangan tentang keselamatan, jika contohnya satu bimbang menjadi mangsa jenayah dan ugutan. [4] tidak memberi tumpuan Awam adalah satu proses di mana individu dapat mengekalkan privasi mereka dalam masa orang ramai.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Informational">[Sunting] sistem maklumat</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Main article: Information privacy">Rencana utama: Maklumat privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Information or data privacy refers to the evolving relationship between technology and the legal right to, or public expectation of privacy in the collection and sharing of data about one's self.">Privasi maklumat atau data merujuk kepada hubungan yang berkembang di antara teknologi dan hak undang-undang, atau pengharapan orang awam privasi dalam pengumpulan dan perkongsian data tentang diri sendiri. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy concerns exist wherever uniquely identifiable data relating to a person or persons are collected and stored, in digital form or otherwise.">Kebimbangan privasi wujud di mana-mana data yang unik boleh dikenal pasti berhubung dengan seseorang atau beberapa orang dikumpulkan dan disimpan dalam bentuk digital atau sebaliknya. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In some cases these concerns refer to how data is collected, stored, and associated.">Dalam sesetengah kes kebimbangan ini merujuk kepada bagaimana data dikumpul, disimpan, dan yang berkaitan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In other cases the issue is who is given access to information.">Dalam kes-kes lain, isu yang diberikan akses kepada maklumat. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Other issues include whether an individual has any ownership rights to data about them, and/or the right to view, verify, and challenge that information.">Isu-isu lain termasuk sama ada seseorang individu mempunyai apa-apa hak pemilikan kepada data tentang mereka, dan / atau hak untuk melihat, mengesahkan, dan cabaran yang maklumat.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Various types of personal information are often associated with privacy concerns.">Pelbagai jenis maklumat peribadi sering dikaitkan dengan masalah privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For various reasons, individuals may object to personal information such as their religion, sexual orientation, political affiliations, or personal activities being revealed, perhaps to avoid discrimination, personal embarrassment, or damage to their professional reputations.">Atas pelbagai sebab, individu boleh membantah kepada maklumat peribadi seperti agama, orientasi seksual, hubungan politik, atau aktiviti peribadi yang diturunkan Al-Quran, mungkin untuk mengelakkan diskriminasi, malu peribadi, atau kerosakan kepada reputasi profesional mereka.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Financial privacy, in which information about a person's financial transactions is guarded, is important for the avoidance of fraud including identity theft.">Privasi kewangan, di mana maklumat mengenai urus niaga kewangan seseorang dijaga, adalah penting bagi mengelakkan penipuan termasuk kecurian identiti. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Information about a person's purchases, for instance, can reveal a great deal about their preferences, places they have visited, their contacts, products (such as medications) they use, their activities and habits etc.">Maklumat tentang pembelian seseorang, misalnya, boleh mendedahkan banyak tentang pilihan mereka, tempat-tempat yang mereka telah melawat, kenalan mereka, produk (seperti ubat-ubatan) yang mereka gunakan, aktiviti-aktiviti mereka dan tabiat dan sebagainya.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Internet privacy is the ability to determine what information one reveals or withholds about oneself over the Internet, who has access to such information, and for what purposes one's information may or may not be used.">Privasi internet adalah keupayaan untuk menentukan apakah maklumat yang mendedahkan atau menahan tentang diri sendiri melalui Internet, yang mempunyai akses kepada maklumat tersebut, dan untuk apa maklumat yang mungkin atau tidak boleh digunakan.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example, web users may be concerned to discover that many of the web sites which they visit collect, store, and possibly share personally identifiable information about them.">Sebagai contoh, pengguna web mungkin berkenaan mendapati bahawa kebanyakan laman web yang mereka lawati mengumpul, menyimpan, dan mungkin berkongsi maklumat kenal pasti diri mereka. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Similarly, Internet email users generally consider their emails to be private and hence would be concerned if their email was being accessed, read, stored or forwarded by third parties without their consent.">Begitu juga, pengguna e-mel Internet umumnya menganggap emel mereka untuk swasta dan dengan itu akan bimbang jika e-mel mereka sedang diakses, pembacaan, disimpan atau dikemukakan oleh pihak ketiga tanpa persetujuan mereka. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Tools used to protect privacy on the Internet include encryption tools and anonymizing services like I2P and Tor.">Alat yang digunakan untuk melindungi privasi di Internet termasuk alat penyulitan dan anonymizing perkhidmatan seperti I2P dan Tor.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Medical privacy allows a person to withhold their medical records and other information from others, perhaps because of fears that it might affect their insurance coverage or employment, or to avoid the embarrassment caused by revealing medical conditions or treatments.">Privasi perubatan membolehkan seseorang untuk menahan rekod perubatan dan maklumat lain dari orang lain, mungkin kerana kebimbangan bahawa ia mungkin menjejaskan perlindungan insurans atau pekerjaan mereka, atau untuk mengelakkan rasa malu yang disebabkan oleh mendedahkan keadaan perubatan atau rawatan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Medical information could also reveal other aspects of one's personal life, such as sexual preferences or proclivity.">Maklumat perubatan juga boleh mendedahkan aspek-aspek lain kehidupan peribadi seseorang, seperti keutamaan seksual atau kecenderungan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="A right to sexual privacy enables individuals to acquire and use contraceptives without family, community or legal sanctions.">Hak untuk privasi seksual membolehkan individu untuk memperoleh dan menggunakan kontraseptif tanpa keluarga, masyarakat atau sekatan undang-undang.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Political privacy has been a concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times.">Privasi politik telah kebimbangan sejak sistem pengundian muncul pada zaman purba. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The secret ballot helps to ensure that voters cannot be coerced into voting in certain ways, since they can allocate their vote as they wish in the privacy and security of the voting booth while maintaining the anonymity of the vote.">Undi rahsia yang membantu untuk memastikan bahawa pengundi tidak boleh dipaksa mengundi dalam cara tertentu, kerana mereka boleh memperuntukkan undi mereka kerana mereka mahu dalam privasi dan keselamatan gerai mengundi pada masa yang sama mengekalkan ketanpanamaan undi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Secret ballots are nearly universal in modern democracy, and considered a basic right of citizenship, despite the difficulties that they cause (for example the inability to trace votes back to the corresponding voters increases the risk of someone stuffing additional fraudulent votes into the system: additional">Kertas undi rahsia hampir sejagat dalam demokrasi moden, dan dianggap sebagai hak asas kewarganegaraan, walaupun kesukaran yang mereka menyebabkan (contohnya ketidakupayaan untuk mengesan undi kepada pengundi yang sepadan meningkatkan risiko seseorang inti penipuan undi tambahan ke dalam sistem: tambahan </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="security controls are needed to minimize such risks).">kawalan keselamatan yang diperlukan untuk mengurangkan risiko tersebut).</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Organizational">[Sunting] Organisasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Governments agencies, corporations, groups/societies and other organizations may desire to keep their activities or secrets from being revealed to other organizations or individuals, adopting various security practices and controls in order to prevent this.">Agensi-agensi kerajaan, syarikat, kumpulan / masyarakat dan pertubuhan lain yang boleh menimbulkan keinginan untuk menyimpan aktiviti atau rahsia mereka daripada diturunkan kepada organisasi atau individu lain, mengguna pakai amalan keselamatan dan kawalan yang pelbagai untuk mengelakkan perkara ini.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Organizations may seek legal protection for their secrets.">Organisasi boleh mendapatkan perlindungan undang-undang untuk rahsia mereka. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example, a government administration may be able to invoke executive privilege[5] or declares certain information to be classified, or a corporation might attempt to protect valuable proprietary information as trade secrets.[3]">Sebagai contoh, pentadbiran kerajaan mungkin dapat sembah keistimewaan eksekutif [5] atau mengisytiharkan maklumat tertentu untuk diklasifikasikan, atau perbadanan mungkin cuba untuk melindungi maklumat berharga proprietari sebagai rahsia perdagangan. [3]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Spiritual and intellectual">[Sunting] rohani dan intelek</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The earliest legislative development of privacy rights began under British common law, which protected "only the physical interference of life and property."">Pembangunan terawal perundangan hak privasi bermula di bawah undang-undang bersama British, yang dilindungi "hanya gangguan fizikal nyawa dan harta benda." </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Its development from then on became "one of the most significant chapters in the history of privacy law."[6] Privacy rights gradually expanded to include a "recognition of man's spiritual nature, of his feelings and his intellect."[6] Eventually">Pembangunannya sejak saat itu menjadi "salah satu yang bab-bab yang paling ketara dalam sejarah undang-undang privasi." [6] hak Privasi secara beransur-ansur berkembang kepada "pengiktirafan sifat kerohanian manusia, perasaannya dan inteleknya." [6] Akhirnya </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title=", the scope of those rights broadened even further to include a basic "right to be let alone," and the former definition of "property" would then comprise "every form of possession -- intangible, as well as tangible."">, skop hak-hak meluaskan lebih lanjut termasuk asas "hak untuk akan membiarkan sahaja," dan bekas takrif "harta" akan terdiri daripada "setiap bentuk pemilikan tidak ketara, dan seperti ketara" </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="By the late 19th century, interest in a "right to privacy" grew as a response to the growth of print media, especially newspapers.[6]">Akhir abad ke-19, minat dalam "hak privasi" berkembang sebagai tindak balas kepada pertumbuhan media cetak terutamanya akhbar. [6]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]History of privacy">[Sunting] Sejarah privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Further information: Privacy laws of the United States - Early years">Maklumat lanjut: undang-undang Privasi Amerika Syarikat - Awal tahun</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy and technology">[Sunting] Privasi dan teknologi<br /></span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Advertisement for dial telephone service available to delegates to the 1912 Republican convention in Chicago.">Iklan bagi perkhidmatan telefon dail disediakan untuk wakil-wakil ke konvensyen 1912 Republikan di Chicago. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="A major selling point of dial telephone service was that it was "secret", in that no operator was required to connect the call.">Titik jualan utama perkhidmatan telefon dail adalah bahawa ia adalah "rahsia", dalam yang tiada pengendali dikehendaki untuk menyambungkan panggilan.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="As technology has advanced, the way in which privacy is protected and violated has changed with it.">Sebagai teknologi telah maju, cara di mana privasi dilindungi dan melanggar telah berubah dengan ia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the case of some technologies, such as the printing press or the Internet, the increased ability to share information can lead to new ways in which privacy can be breached.">Dalam kes beberapa teknologi, seperti mesin cetak atau internet, keupayaan yang meningkat untuk berkongsi maklumat boleh membawa kepada cara-cara baru yang privasi boleh dilanggar. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="It is generally agreed [7] that the first publication advocating privacy in the United States was the article by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 Harvard LR">Ianya dipersetujui secara umum [7] bahawa penerbitan pertama yang menyokong privasi di Amerika Syarikat adalah artikel oleh Samuel Warren dan Louis Brandeis, Hak Privasi, 4 Harvard LR </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="193 (1890), that was written largely in response to the increase in newspapers and photographs made possible by printing technologies.[8]">193 (1890), yang telah ditulis sebahagian besarnya sebagai tindak balas kepada peningkatan dalam akhbar-akhbar dan gambar yang dimungkinkan oleh teknologi percetakan. [8]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="New technologies can also create new ways to gather private information.">Teknologi baru juga boleh membuat cara-cara baru untuk mengumpul maklumat swasta. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example, in the US it was thought that heat sensors intended to be used to find marijuana growing operations would be acceptable.">Sebagai contoh, di Amerika Syarikat telah berfikir bahawa sensor haba dimaksudkan untuk digunakan untuk mencari ganja tumbuh operasi akan diterima.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="However in 2001 in Kyllo v. United States (533 US 27) it was decided that the use of thermal imaging devices that can reveal previously unknown information without a warrant does indeed constitute a violation of privacy.[9]">Walau bagaimanapun, pada tahun 2001 di Amerika Syarikat Kyllo v (533 AS 27) telah memutuskan bahawa penggunaan peranti pengimejan terma yang boleh mendedahkan maklumat yang sebelum ini tidak diketahui tanpa waran sememangnya merupakan pelanggaran privasi. [9]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Generally the increased ability to gather and send information has had negative implications for retaining privacy.">Pada amnya, peningkatan keupayaan untuk mengumpul dan menghantar maklumat mempunyai implikasi negatif untuk mengekalkan privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="As large scale information systems become more common, there is so much information stored in many databases worldwide that an individual has no practical means of knowing of or controlling all of the information about themselves that others may have hold or access.">Sebagai sistem maklumat skala besar menjadi lebih biasa, terdapat terlalu banyak maklumat yang disimpan di dalam pangkalan data di seluruh dunia bahawa seseorang individu tidak mempunyai cara-cara praktikal untuk mengetahui atau mengawal semua maklumat tentang diri mereka yang lain mungkin mempunyai pegangan atau akses. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Such information could potentially be sold to others for profit and/or be used for purposes not known to or sanctioned by the individual concerned.">Apa-apa maklumat berpotensi boleh dijual kepada orang lain untuk keuntungan dan / atau digunakan untuk tujuan yang tidak diketahui atau dipersetujui oleh individu berkenaan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The concept of information privacy has become more significant as more systems controlling more information appear.">Konsep privasi maklumat telah menjadi lebih penting kerana sistem yang mengawal maklumat lanjut muncul. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Also the consequences of privacy violations can be more severe.">Juga akibat daripada pelanggaran privasi boleh menjadi lebih teruk. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy law in many countries has had to adapt to changes in technology in order to address these issues and, to some extent, maintain privacy rights.">Undang-undang privasi di kebanyakan negara telah terpaksa menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan dalam teknologi bagi menangani isu-isu ini dan, sedikit sebanyak, mengekalkan hak privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="But the existing global privacy rights framework has also been criticized as incoherent and inefficient.">Tetapi hak privasi global sedia rangka kerja juga telah dikritik sebagai tidak keruan dan tidak cekap.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Proposals such as the APEC Privacy Framework have emerged which set out to provide the first comprehensive legal framework on the issue of global data privacy.">Cadangan seperti Rangka Kerja Privasi APEC telah muncul yang dibentangkan untuk menyediakan rangka kerja perundangan yang komprehensif pertama mengenai isu data privasi global.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy and the Internet">[Sunting] Privasi dan Internet</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Main article: Internet privacy">Rencana utama: Internet privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The Internet has brought new concerns about privacy in an age where computers can permanently store records of everything: "where every online photo, status update, Twitter post and blog entry by and about us can be stored forever," writes law professor and author Jeffrey">Internet telah membawa kebimbangan baru mengenai privasi pada zaman di mana komputer kekal boleh menyimpan rekod semua: "di mana setiap foto dalam talian, update status, pos Twitter dan blog oleh dan mengenai kami boleh disimpan selama-lamanya," tulis profesor undang-undang dan penulis Jeffrey </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Rosen.[10]">Rosen. [10]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="This currently has an effect on employment.">Ini kini mempunyai kesan ke atas pekerjaan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Microsoft reports that 75 percent of US recruiters and human-resource professionals now do online research about candidates, often using information provided by search engines, social-networking sites, photo/video-sharing sites, personal web sites and blogs, and Twitter.">Microsoft melaporkan bahawa 75 peratus perekrut AS dan-profesional sumber manusia sekarang melakukan penyelidikan dalam talian tentang calon, sering menggunakan maklumat yang disediakan oleh enjin carian, tapak rangkaian sosial, foto / laman web perkongsian video, laman web dan blog peribadi, dan Twitter. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="They also report that 70 percent of US recruiters have rejected candidates based on internet information.[10] This has created a need by many to control various online privacy settings in addition to controlling their online reputations, both of which have led to legal suits against">Mereka juga melaporkan bahawa 70 peratus daripada perekrut AS telah menolak calon-calon berdasarkan kepada maklumat Internet. [10] Ini telah mewujudkan satu keperluan oleh banyak untuk mengawal pelbagai tetapan privasi dalam talian di samping untuk mengawal reputasi dalam talian mereka, kedua-duanya telah membawa kepada tindakan undang-undang terhadap </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="various sites and employers.[10]">pelbagai laman web dan majikan. [10</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The ability to do online inquiries about individuals has expanded dramatically over the last decade.">Keupayaan untuk melakukan pertanyaan dalam talian mengenai individu-individu telah berkembang secara mendadak sejak sedekad yang lalu. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Facebook for example, as of July 2010, was the largest social-networking site, with nearly 500 million members, or 22 percent of all Internet users, who upload over 25 billion pieces of content each month.">Facebook sebagai contoh, Julai 2010, tapak rangkaian sosial yang terbesar, dengan hampir 500 juta orang ahli, atau 22 peratus daripada semua pengguna Internet, yang memuat naik lebih 25 bilion keping kandungan setiap bulan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Twitter has more than 100 million registered users.">Twitter mempunyai lebih daripada 100 juta pengguna berdaftar.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The Library of Congress recently announced that it will be acquiring — and permanently storing — the entire archive of public Twitter posts since 2006, reports Rosen.[10]">Perpustakaan Kongres baru-baru ini mengumumkan bahawa ia akan mengambil alih - dan kekal menyimpan arkib seluruh jawatan Twitter awam sejak 2006, melaporkan Rosen [10].</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="According to some experts, many commonly used communication devices may be mapping every move of their users.">Menurut beberapa pakar, banyak alat-alat komunikasi yang biasa digunakan boleh pemetaan setiap langkah dari pengguna mereka.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Senator Al Franken has noted the seriousness of iPhones and iPads having the ability to record and store users locations in unencrypted files,[11] although Apple denied doing so.[12]">Senator Al Franken telah mengambil perhatian serius iPhone dan iPads yang mempunyai keupayaan untuk merakam dan pengguna kedai lokasi dalam fail tak disulitkan, [11] walaupun Apple menafikan berbuat demikian. [12]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Andrew Grove, co-founder and former CEO of Intel Corporation, offered his thoughts on internet privacy in an interview in 2000:[13]">Andrew Grove, pengasas bersama dan bekas Ketua Pegawai Eksekutif Intel Corporation, menawarkan pemikiran mengenai privasi internet dalam satu temu bual pada tahun 2000: [13]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy is one of the biggest problems in this new electronic age.">Privasi adalah salah satu masalah terbesar dalam umur elektronik yang baru ini. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="At the heart of the Internet culture is a force that wants to find out everything about you.">Di tengah-tengah budaya Internet adalah suatu kuasa yang mahu mengetahui segala-galanya tentang anda. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="And once it has found out everything about you and two hundred million others, that's a very valuable asset, and people will be tempted to trade and do commerce with that asset.">Dan sekali ia telah mendapati segala-galanya tentang anda dan 200,000,000 yang lain, yang satu aset yang sangat bernilai, dan orang akan terdorong untuk berdagang dan melakukan perdagangan dengan aset itu. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="This wasn't the information that people were thinking of when they called this the information age.">Ini bukan maklumat bahawa orang berfikir apabila mereka dipanggil ini zaman maklumat.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Right to privacy">[Sunting] Hak untuk privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy uses the theory of natural rights, and generally responds to new information and communication technologies.">Privasi menggunakan teori hak semulajadi, dan secara amnya bertindak balas terhadap maklumat baru dan teknologi komunikasi.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In North America, Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis wrote that privacy is the "right to be let alone" (Warren & Brandeis, 1890) focuses on protecting individuals.">Di Amerika Utara, Samuel D. Warren dan Louis D. Brandeis menulis bahawa privasi ini "betul akan apatah lagi" (Warren & Brandeis, 1890) memberi tumpuan kepada melindungi individu.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="This citation was a response to recent technological developments, such as photography, and sensationalist journalism, also known as yellow journalism.">Petikan ini adalah tindak balas kepada perkembangan teknologi terkini, seperti fotografi, dan kewartawanan sensasi, juga dikenali sebagai kewartawanan kuning. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Warren and Brandeis declared that information which was previously hidden and private could now be "shouted from the rooftops."[14]">Warren dan Brandeis mengisytiharkan bahawa maklumat yang sebelum ini tersembunyi dan swasta kini boleh "jerit dari bumbung-bumbung." [14]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy rights are inherently intertwined with information technology.">Hak privasi sememangnya saling berkaitan dengan teknologi maklumat. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In his widely cited dissenting opinion in Olmstead v. United States (1928), Brandeis relied on thoughts he developed in his Harvard Law Review article in 1890.">Dalam pendapat beliau secara meluas dinamakan bertentangan di Olmstead v. Amerika Syarikat (1928), Brandeis bergantung pada pemikiran beliau membangunkan dalam artikel Harvard Mengkaji Undang-undang itu pada tahun 1890. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="But in his dissent, he now changed the focus whereby he urged making personal privacy matters more relevant to constitutional law, going so far as saying "the government [was] identified .... as a potential privacy invader."">Tetapi perbezaan pendapat beliau, beliau kini menukar tumpuannya di mana beliau menggesa membuat privasi peribadi perkara-perkara yang lebih relevan kepada undang-undang perlembagaan, akan setakat sebagai berkata "Kerajaan [telah] dikenalpasti .... sebagai penceroboh privasi yang berpotensi." </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="He writes, "Discovery and invention have made it possible for the Government, by means far more effective than stretching upon the rack, to obtain disclosure in court of what is whispered in the closet."">Beliau menulis, "Penemuan dan ciptaan telah dibuat kemungkinan ia untuk Kerajaan, melalui kaedah yang jauh lebih berkesan daripada membentang di atas rak, untuk mendapatkan pendedahan di mahkamah apa yang berbisik di dalam almari." </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="At that time, telephones were often community assets, with shared party lines and the potentially nosey human operators.">Pada masa itu, telefon sering aset masyarakat, dengan barisan parti yang dikongsi dan pengendali berpotensi yg ingin tahu manusia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="By the time of Katz, in 1967, telephones had become personal devices with lines not shared across homes and switching was electro-mechanical.">Oleh masa yang Katz, pada tahun 1967, telefon telah menjadi peranti peribadi dengan garisan yang tidak dikongsi seluruh rumah dan pensuisan adalah elektro-mekanikal. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the 1970s, new computing and recording technologies began to raise concerns about privacy, resulting in the Fair Information Practice Principles.">Pada tahun 1970-an, pengkomputeran dan teknologi rakaman baru mula menimbulkan kebimbangan mengenai privasi, menyebabkan Prinsip Amalan Adil Maklumat.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Definitions">[Sunting] Definisi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In recent years there have been only few attempts to clearly and precisely define a "right to privacy."">Dalam tahun-tahun kebelakangan ini terdapat hanya beberapa percubaan untuk mentakrifkan dengan jelas dan tepat "hak untuk privasi." </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Some experts assert that in fact the right to privacy "should not be defined as a separate legal right" at all.">Sesetengah pakar menegaskan bahawa sebenarnya hak privasi "tidak harus ditakrifkan sebagai hak perundangan yang berasingan" pada semua. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="By their reasoning, existing laws relating to privacy in general should be sufficient.[15] Other experts, such as Dean Prosser, have attempted, but failed, to find a "common ground" between the leading kinds of privacy cases in the court system">Dengan memberi alasan mereka, undang-undang yang sedia ada yang berkaitan dengan privasi umum hendaklah mencukupi. [15] pakar lain, seperti Dekan Prosser, telah cuba, tetapi gagal untuk mencari "titik persamaan" antara jenis utama kes privasi dalam sistem mahkamah </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title=", at least to formulate a definition.[15] One law school treatise from Israel, however, on the subject of "privacy in the digital environment," suggests that the "right to privacy should be seen as an independent right that deserves legal protection">, sekurang-kurangnya untuk merumuskan definisi. [15] Satu undang-undang sekolah risalat dari Israel, bagaimanapun, mengenai subjek "privasi dalam persekitaran digital," mencadangkan bahawa "hak privasi harus dilihat sebagai hak bebas yang memerlukan perlindungan undang-undang </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="in itself."">dengan sendirinya. " </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="It has therefore proposed a working definition for a "right to privacy":">Oleh yang demikian, ia telah mencadangkan definisi bekerja untuk "hak privasi":</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The right to privacy is our right to keep a domain around us, which includes all those things that are part of us, such as our body, home, thoughts, feelings, secrets and identity.">Hak privasi adalah hak kami untuk mengekalkan domain di sekeliling kita, yang merangkumi semua perkara-perkara yang merupakan sebahagian daripada kita, seperti badan, rumah, fikiran, perasaan, rahsia dan identiti. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The right to privacy gives us the ability to choose which parts in this domain can be accessed by others, and to control the extent, manner and timing of the use of those parts we choose to disclose.[15]">Hak privasi memberikan kita keupayaan untuk memilih mana bahagian dalam domain ini boleh diakses oleh orang lain, dan untuk mengawal tahap, cara dan masa penggunaan bahagian-bahagian itu, kami memilih untuk mendedahkan. [15]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]An individual right">[Sunting] hak individu</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Alan Westin believes that new technologies alter the balance between privacy and disclosure, and that privacy rights may limit government surveillance to protect democratic processes.">Alan Westin percaya bahawa teknologi baru mengubah keseimbangan antara privasi dan pendedahan, dan bahawa hak privasi boleh membataskan pengawasan kerajaan untuk melindungi proses demokrasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Westin defines privacy as "the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others".">Westin mentakrifkan privasi sebagai "tuntutan individu, kumpulan atau institusi untuk menentukan bagi diri mereka sendiri bila, bagaimana dan sejauh manakah maklumat mengenai mereka disampaikan kepada orang lain". </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Westin describes four states of privacy: solitude, intimacy, anonymity, reserve.">Westin menerangkan empat negeri privasi: kesendirian, keintiman, tanpa nama, rizab. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="These states must balance participation against norms:">Negeri-negeri ini mestilah mengimbangi penyertaan mereka bertentangan dengan norma:</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Each individual is continually engaged in a personal adjustment process in which he balances the desire for privacy with the desire for disclosure and communication of himself to others, in light of the environmental conditions and social norms set by the society in which he lives.">Setiap individu sentiasa terlibat dalam proses pelarasan peribadi di mana dia mengimbangkan keinginan untuk privasi dengan keinginan untuk mendapatkan pendedahan dan komunikasi dirinya kepada orang lain, dalam cahaya keadaan persekitaran dan norma-norma sosial yang ditetapkan oleh masyarakat di mana dia tinggal. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="- Alan Westin, Privacy and Freedom, 1968[16]">- Alan Westin, Privasi dan Kebebasan, 1968 [16]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Under liberal democratic systems, privacy creates a space separate from political life, and allows personal autonomy, while ensuring democratic freedoms of association and expression.">Di bawah sistem demokrasi liberal, privasi mewujudkan ruang yang berasingan daripada kehidupan politik, dan membolehkan autonomi peribadi, di samping memastikan kebebasan demokrasi berpersatuan dan bersuara.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="David Flaherty believes networked computer databases pose threats to privacy.">David Flaherty percaya pangkalan data komputer yang dirangkaikan menimbulkan ancaman kepada privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="He develops 'data protection' as an aspect of privacy, which involves "the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information".">Beliau membangunkan 'perlindungan data' sebagai satu aspek privasi, yang melibatkan "pengumpulan, penggunaan, dan penyebaran maklumat peribadi". </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="This concept forms the foundation for fair information practices used by governments globally.">Konsep ini membentuk asas bagi amalan-amalan maklumat yang adil yang digunakan oleh kerajaan di seluruh dunia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Flaherty forwards an idea of privacy as information control, "[i]ndividuals want to be left alone and to exercise some control over how information about them is used".[17]">Flaherty ke hadapan idea privasi sebagai kawalan maklumat, "[i] ndividuals mahu dibiarkan bersendirian dan menjalankan beberapa kawalan ke atas bagaimana maklumat tentang mereka digunakan". [17]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Richard Posner and Lawrence Lessig focus on the economic aspects of personal information control.">Richard Posner dan Lawrence Lessig memberi tumpuan kepada aspek ekonomi kawalan maklumat peribadi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Posner criticizes privacy for concealing information, which reduces market efficiency.">Posner mengkritik privasi untuk menyembunyikan maklumat, yang mengurangkan kecekapan pasaran. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For Posner, employment is selling oneself in the labour market, which he believes is like selling a product.">Bagi Posner, pekerjaan menjual diri dalam pasaran buruh, yang beliau percaya adalah seperti menjual produk.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Any 'defect' in the 'product' that is not reported is fraud.[18] For Lessig, privacy breaches online can be regulated through code and law.">Mana-mana 'kecacatan' dalam 'produk' yang tidak dilaporkan adalah penipuan. [18] Untuk Lessig, pelanggaran privasi dalam talian boleh dikawal selia melalui kod dan undang-undang. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Lessig claims "the protection of privacy would be stronger if people conceived of the right as a property right", and that "individuals should be able to control information about themselves".[19] Economic approaches to privacy make communal conceptions of privacy difficult to">Lessig mendakwa "perlindungan privasi akan menjadi lebih kuat jika orang yang difikirkan hak sebagai hak harta", dan bahawa "individu seharusnya mampu untuk mengawal maklumat mengenai diri mereka". [19] pendekatan Ekonomi privasi membuat konsep perkauman privasi yang sukar untuk </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="maintain.">mengekalkan.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]A collective value and a human right">[Sunting] A nilai kolektif dan hak asasi manusia</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="There have been attempts to reframe privacy as a fundamental human right, whose social value is an essential component in the functioning of democratic societies.[citation needed] Amitai Etzioni suggests a communitarian approach to privacy.">Telah ada percubaan untuk privasi reframe sebagai hak asasi manusia, yang nilai sosial adalah satu komponen penting dalam fungsi masyarakat demokrasi. [Perlu petikan] Amitai Etzioni mencadangkan pendekatan komune untuk privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="This requires a shared moral culture for establishing social order.[20] Etzioni believes that "[p]rivacy is merely one good among many others",[21] and that technological effects depend on community accountability and oversight (ibid).">Ini memerlukan budaya moral yang dikongsi bersama untuk mewujudkan susunan sosial. [20] Etzioni percaya bahawa "[p] rivacy adalah semata-mata satu yang baik di kalangan lain-lain lagi", [21] dan bahawa kesan teknologi bergantung kepada kebertanggungjawaban masyarakat dan pengawasan (ibid). </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="He claims that privacy laws only increase government surveillance.[22]">Dia mendakwa bahawa undang-undang privasi ini hanya meningkatkan pengawasan kerajaan. [22]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Priscilla Regan believes that individual concepts of privacy have failed philosophically and in policy.">Priscilla Regan percaya bahawa konsep individu privasi telah gagal falsafah dan dasar. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="She supports a social value of privacy with three dimensions: shared perceptions, public values, and collective components.">Beliau menyokong nilai sosial privasi dengan tiga dimensi: berkongsi persepsi, nilai awam, dan komponen kolektif. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Shared ideas about privacy allows freedom of conscience and diversity in thought.">Berkongsi idea mengenai privasi membolehkan kebebasan hati nurani dan kepelbagaian dalam pemikiran. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Public values guarantee democratic participation, including freedoms of speech and association, and limits government power.">Nilai awam menjamin penyertaan demokratik, termasuk kebebasan bersuara dan berpersatuan, dan had kuasa kerajaan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Collective elements describe privacy as collective good that cannot be divided.">Unsur-unsur kolektif menghuraikan privasi sebagai baik kolektif yang tidak boleh dibahagikan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Regan's goal is to strengthen privacy claims in policy making: "if we did recognize the collective or public-good value of privacy, as well as the common and public value of privacy, those advocating privacy protections would have a stronger basis upon which to argue">Matlamat Regan, untuk menguatkan tuntutan privasi dalam dasar membuat: "jika kita tidak mengenali yang nilai kolektif atau awam-baik privasi, dan juga yang nilai bersama dan awam privasi, mereka perlindungan privasi menyokong akan mempunyai 1 asas kukuh apabila yang untuk berdebat </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="for its protection".[23]">"[23] perlindungan yang</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Leslie Regan Shade argues that the human right to privacy is necessary for meaningful democratic participation, and ensures human dignity and autonomy.">Leslie Suram Regan berhujah bahawa hak asasi manusia privasi adalah perlu bagi penyertaan demokratik yang bermakna, dan memastikan maruah dan autonomi manusia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy depends on norms for how information is distributed, and if this is appropriate.">Privasi bergantung kepada norma bagaimana maklumat diedarkan, dan jika ini adalah sesuai. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Violations of privacy depend on context.">Pelanggaran privasi bergantung kepada konteks. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The human right to privacy has precedent in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media">Hak asasi manusia untuk privasi mempunyai duluan dalam Deklarasi Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu Hak Asasi Manusia: "Setiap orang adalah berhak kepada kebebasan pendapat dan mengeluarkan fikiran; hak ini termasuklah kebebasan memegang pendapat tanpa gangguan dan menuntut, menerima dan menyebarkan maklumat dan buah fikiran melalui sebarang media </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="and regardless of frontiers."[24] Shade believes that privacy must be approached from a people-centered perspective, and not through the marketplace.[25]">dan tanpa mengira sempadan. "[24] Lorekkan percaya privasi yang mesti didekati dari perspektif rakyat, dan bukan melalui pasaran. [25]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy protection">[Sunting] Privasi perlindungan</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Free market versus consumer protection approaches">[Sunting] Percuma pasaran berbanding dengan pendekatan perlindungan pengguna</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Approaches to privacy can, broadly, be divided into two categories: free market, and consumer protection.[26] In a free market approach, commercial entities are largely allowed to do what they wish, with the expectation that consumers will choose to do business">Pendekatan untuk privasi boleh secara umumnya, dibahagikan kepada dua kategori: pasaran bebas, dan perlindungan pengguna [26] Dalam pendekatan pasaran bebas, entiti komersial yang sebahagian besarnya dibenarkan untuk melakukan apa yang mereka kehendaki, dengan jangkaan bahawa pengguna akan memilih untuk menjalankan perniagaan </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="with corporations that respect their privacy to a desired degree.">dengan syarikat yang menghormati privasi mereka ke tahap yang dikehendaki. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="If some companies are not sufficiently respectful of privacy, they will lose market share.">Jika sesetengah syarikat tidak cukup menghormati privasi, mereka akan kehilangan bahagian pasaran. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Such an approach may be limited by lack of competition in a market, by enterprises not offering privacy options favorable to the user, or by lack of information about actual privacy practices.">Pendekatan sedemikian boleh dihadkan oleh kekurangan persaingan dalam pasaran, oleh perusahaan tidak menawarkan pilihan privasi yang memihak kepada pengguna, atau oleh kekurangan maklumat mengenai amalan privasi sebenar. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Claims of privacy protection made by companies may be difficult for consumers to verify, except when they have already been violated.">Tuntutan perlindungan privasi yang dibuat oleh syarikat-syarikat mungkin sukar untuk pengguna untuk mengesahkan, kecuali apabila mereka telah dicabuli.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In a consumer protection approach, in contrast, it is acknowledged that individuals may not have the time or knowledge to make informed choices, or may not have reasonable alternatives available.">Sebaliknya, dalam pendekatan perlindungan pengguna, diakui bahawa individu mungkin tidak mempunyai masa atau pengetahuan untuk membuat pilihan berdasarkan maklumat, atau mungkin tidak mempunyai alternatif yang munasabah yang ada.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In support of this view, Jensen and Potts showed that most privacy policies are above the reading level of the average person .[27] Therefore, this approach advocates greater government definition and enforcement of privacy standards.">Dalam menyokong pandangan ini, Jensen dan Potts menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan dasar privasi yang berada di atas paras bacaan orang biasa. [27] Oleh itu, ini peguam bela pendekatan kerajaan yang lebih besar definisi dan penguatkuasaan standard privasi.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy law">[Sunting] Privasi undang-undang</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Main article: Privacy law">Rencana utama: Privasi undang-undang</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy law is the area of law concerning the protecting and preserving of privacy rights of individuals.">Undang-undang privasi kawasan undang-undang mengenai melindungi dan memelihara hak privasi individu. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="While there is no universally accepted privacy law among all countries, some organizations promote certain concepts be enforced by individual countries.">Walaupun terdapat ada undang-undang privasi yang diterima secara universal di kalangan semua negara, beberapa organisasi mempromosikan konsep tertentu boleh dikuatkuasakan oleh negara-negara individu.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 12, states:">Sebagai contoh, Deklarasi Sejagat Hak Asasi Manusia, artikel 12, menyatakan:</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation.">Tiada sesiapa pun boleh dikenakan kepada sebarang gangguan sewenang-wenangnya terhadap keadaan peribadi, keluarga, rumah, atau surat-menyuratnya, atau percerobohan ke atas maruah dan nama baiknya. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.">Setiap orang adalah berhak kepada perlindungan undang-undang terhadap gangguan atau percerobohan sedemikian.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Europe">Eropah</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For Europe, Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights guarantees the right to respect for private and family life, one's home and correspondence.">Bagi Eropah, Perkara 8 Konvensyen Eropah mengenai Hak Asasi Manusia menjamin hak untuk menghormati kehidupan peribadi dan keluarga, rumah dan surat-menyurat. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg has developed a large body of jurisprudence defining this fundamental right to privacy.[citation needed] The European Union requires all member states to legislate to ensure that citizens have a right to privacy, through directives such as the">Mahkamah Hak Asasi Manusia Eropah di Strasbourg telah membangunkan sebuah badan besar perundangan yang menentukan hak asasi ini untuk privasi. [Perlu petikan] Kesatuan Eropah (EU) memerlukan semua negara anggota untuk membuat undang-undang untuk memastikan bahawa rakyat mempunyai hak untuk privasi, melalui arahan seperti</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="1995 Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal data.">1995 Arahan 95/46/EC mengenai perlindungan data peribadi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="It is regulated in the United Kingdom by the Data Protection Act 1998 and in France data protection is also monitored by the CNIL, a governmental body which must authorize legislation concerning privacy before them being enacted.">Ia dikawal selia di United Kingdom oleh Akta Perlindungan Data 1998 dan dalam perlindungan data Perancis juga dipantau oleh CNIL, sebuah badan kerajaan yang mesti kuasa perundangan mengenai privasi yang sebelum mereka yang digubal.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Although there are comprehensive regulations for data protection, Some studies show that despite the laws, there is a lack of enforcement in that no institution feels responsible to control the parties involved and enforce their laws.[28]">Walaupun terdapat peraturan yang menyeluruh bagi perlindungan data, Beberapa kajian menunjukkan bahawa walaupun undang-undang, terdapat kekurangan penguatkuasaan di institusi tidak berasa bertanggungjawab untuk mengawal pihak yang terlibat dan menguatkuasakan undang-undang mereka. [28]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the United Kingdom, it is not possible to bring an action for invasion of privacy.">Di United Kingdom, ia tidak mungkin untuk membawa suatu tindakan bagi pencerobohan privasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="An action may be brought under another tort (usually breach of confidence) and privacy must then be considered under EC law.">Sesuatu tindakan yang boleh dibawa di bawah lain tort (biasanya pelanggaran keyakinan) dan privasi maka perlu dipertimbangkan di bawah undang-undang SPR. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the UK, it is sometimes a defence that disclosure of private information was in the public interest.[29] There is, however, the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO), an independent public body set up to promote access to official information and protect">Di UK, ia adalah kadang-kadang 1 pembelaan bahawa pendedahan maklumat peribadi adalah demi kepentingan awam. [29] Maka adalah, bagaimanapun, Pejabat yang Pesuruhjaya Maklumat ini (ICO), 1 badan awam bebas menetapkan sehingga untuk menggalakkan akses kepada maklumat rasmi dan melindungi </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="personal information.">maklumat peribadi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="They do this by promoting good practice, ruling on eligible complaints, giving information to individuals and organisations, and taking action when the law is broken.">Mereka melakukan ini dengan menggalakkan amalan yang baik, yang berkuatkuasa ke atas aduan yang layak, memberi maklumat kepada individu dan organisasi, dan mengambil tindakan apabila undang-undang itu dipecahkan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The relevant UK laws include: Data Protection Act 1998; Freedom of Information Act 2000; Environmental Information Regulations 2004; Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations 2003.">Berkaitan undang-undang di UK termasuk: Perlindungan Data 1998 Akta; Akta Kebebasan Maklumat 2000; Maklumat Peraturan Alam Sekitar 2004; Privasi dan Peraturan-Peraturan Komunikasi Elektronik 2003. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The ICO has also provided a "Personal Information Toolkit" online which explains in more detail the various ways of protecting privacy online.[30]">ÌÇÔ telah juga disediakan "Maklumat Toolkit Peribadi" dalam talian yang menjelaskan dengan lebih terperinci pelbagai cara untuk melindungi talian privasi. [30]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="United States">Amerika Syarikat</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Concerning privacy laws of the United States, privacy is not guaranteed per se by the Constitution of the United States.">Mengenai undang-undang privasi Amerika Syarikat, privasi ini tidak dijamin per se oleh Perlembagaan Amerika Syarikat. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The Supreme Court of the United States has found that other guarantees have "penumbras" that implicitly grant a right to privacy against government intrusion, for example in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965).">Mahkamah Agung Amerika Syarikat telah mendapati bahawa jaminan lain mempunyai "penumbras" yang tersirat memberikan hak kepada privasi terhadap campur tangan kerajaan, contohnya di Griswold v Connecticut (1965). </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In the United States, the right of freedom of speech granted in the First Amendment has limited the effects of lawsuits for breach of privacy.">Di Amerika Syarikat, hak kebebasan bersuara yang diberikan dalam Pindaan Pertama telah terhad kesan daripada tindakan undang-undang kerana melanggar privasi.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy is regulated in the US by the Privacy Act of 1974, and various state laws.">Privasi ini dikawal selia di Amerika Syarikat oleh Akta Privasi 1974, dan pelbagai undang-undang negeri. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Certain privacy rights have been established in the United States via legislation such as the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA),[31] the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act (GLB), and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).">Hak privasi tertentu telah telah ditubuhkan di Amerika Syarikat melalui undang-undang seperti Privasi Dalam Talian Kanak-kanak Perlindungan Akta (COPPA), [31] yang Akta Gramm-Leach-Bliley (GLB), dan yang Insurans Kesihatan Kemudahalihan dan Akta Akauntabiliti (HIPAA).</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Canada">Kanada</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Canadian privacy law is governed federally by multiple acts, including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and the Privacy Act (Canada).">Undang-undang privasi Kanada ditadbir persekutuan dengan tindakan berganda, termasuk Piagam Kanada-hak dan kebebasannya, dan Akta Privasi (Kanada). </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Mostly this legislation concerns privacy infringement by government organizations.">Kebanyakannya undang-undang ini berkenaan pelanggaran privasi oleh pertubuhan-pertubuhan kerajaan. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Data privacy was first addressed with the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, and provincial-level legislation also exists to account for more specific cases personal privacy protection against commercial organizations.">Data privasi pertama kali ditangani dengan Perlindungan Maklumat Peribadi dan Dokumen Elektronik Akta, dan wilayah-peringkat perundangan juga wujud ke akaun lagi kes privasi perlindungan yang khusus peribadi terhadap organisasi komersial.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Australia">Australia</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="In Australia there is the Privacy Act 1988.">Di Australia terdapat Akta Privasi 1988. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Privacy sector provisions of the Act apply to private sector organisations with a link to Australia, including: 1.">Peruntukan sektor privasi Akta terpakai kepada organisasi sektor swasta dengan pautan ke Australia, termasuk: 1. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="individuals who collect, use or disclose personal information in the course of a business.">individu yang mengumpul, gunakan atau mendedahkan maklumat peribadi dalam urusan perniagaan.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example, a sole trader's business activities will be regulated (unless it's a small business), but information gathered outside business activities won't be; 2.">Sebagai contoh, aktiviti perniagaan seorang peniaga tunggal akan dikawal selia (melainkan jika ia adalah satu perniagaan kecil), tetapi maklumat yang berkumpul di luar aktiviti perniagaan tidak akan berkenaan; 2. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="bodies corporate; and 3.">badan-badan korporat dan 3. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="partnerships, unincorporated associations and trusts - any act or practice of a partner, committee member or trustee is attributed to the organisation.">perkongsian, persatuan-persatuan yang tidak diperbadankan dan amanah - apa-apa perbuatan atau amalan rakan kongsi, ahli jawatankuasa atau pemegang amanah disebabkan oleh organisasi. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Organisations outside Australia must comply with the provisions in some circumstances.">Organisasi luar Australia mesti mematuhi peruntukan-peruntukan dalam keadaan tertentu. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Sending information out of Australia is also regulated.[32]">Menghantar maklumat keluar dari Australia juga diatur. [32]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy on the Internet">[Sunting] Privasi di Internet</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Main article: Internet privacy">Rencana utama: Internet privasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="There are many means to protect one's privacy on the internet.">Terdapat banyak cara untuk melindungi privasi di internet. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="For example e-mails can be encrypted[33] and anonymizing proxies or anonymizing networks like I2P and Tor can be used to prevent the internet service providers from knowing which sites one visits and with whom one communicates.">Sebagai contoh e-mel boleh disulitkan [33] dan anonymizing proksi atau anonymizing rangkaian seperti I2P dan Tor boleh digunakan untuk mencegah penyedia perkhidmatan internet dari mengetahui laman-laman web 1 lawatan dan dengan siapa seseorang berkomunikasi.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Covert collection of personally identifiable information has been identified as a primary concern by the US Federal Trade Commission.[34] Although some privacy advocates recommend the deletion of original and third-party HTTP cookies, Anthony Miyazaki, marketing professor at Florida International University and privacy">Koleksi rahsia maklumat peribadi telah dikenalpasti sebagai satu kebimbangan utama oleh Suruhanjaya Perdagangan Persekutuan Amerika Syarikat. [34] Walaupun beberapa peguam bela privasi mengesyorkan penghapusan cookie HTTP asal dan pihak ketiga, Anthony Miyazaki, pemasaran profesor di Florida International University dan privasi </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="scholar, warns that the "elimination of third-party cookie use by Web sites can be circumvented by cooperative strategies with third parties in which information is transferred after the Web site's use of original domain cookies."[35] As of December 2010, the">ulama, memberi amaran bahawa itu "penghapusan pihak ketiga penggunaan cookies oleh laman web yang boleh akan dilepasi oleh strategi kerjasama dengan pihak ketiga di mana maklumat akan dipindahkan selepas itu laman web ini menggunakan cookies domain asal." [35] Sebagai Disember 2010, </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Federal Trade Commission is reviewing policy regarding this issue as it relates to behavioral advertising.[34] Another aspect of privacy on the Internet relates to online social networking.">Suruhanjaya Perdagangan Persekutuan sedang mengkaji semula dasar mengenai isu ini kerana ia berkaitan dengan pengiklanan tingkah laku. [34] Satu lagi aspek privasi di Internet berkaitan dengan rangkaian sosial dalam talian. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Several online social network sites (OSNs) are among the top 10 most visited websites globally.">Beberapa talian rangkaian laman web sosial (OSNs) adalah antara 10 negara teratas yang paling melawat laman web di seluruh dunia. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="A review and evalutation of scholarly work regarding the current state of the value of individuals' privacy of online social networking show the following results: "first, adults seem to be more concerned about potential privacy threats than younger users; second, policy makers should be">Satu kajian dan evalutation kerja ilmiah mengenai keadaan semasa nilai privasi individu rangkaian sosial dalam talian menunjukkan keputusan seperti berikut: "pertama, orang dewasa seolah-olah menjadi lebih prihatin tentang ancaman privasi yang berpotensi daripada pengguna yang lebih muda, kedua, pembuat dasar harus</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="alarmed by a large part of users who underestimate risks of their information privacy on OSNs; third, in the case of using OSNs and its services, traditional one-dimensional privacy approaches fall short".[36]">bimbang dengan sebahagian besar pengguna yang memandang rendah risiko privasi maklumat mereka pada OSNs; ketiga, dalam kes menggunakan OSNs dan perkhidmatan, pendekatan tradisional privasi satu dimensi jatuh pendek "[36]</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy and location-based services">[Sunting] Privasi dan perkhidmatan berasaskan lokasi</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="As location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are increasing, problems related to user privacy arise, since user's position and preferences constitute personal information and improper use of them violates user's privacy.">Sebagai keupayaan mengesan lokasi peranti mudah alih semakin meningkat, masalah yang berkaitan dengan privasi pengguna timbul, kerana kedudukan dan keutamaan pengguna merupakan maklumat peribadi dan penggunaan tidak wajar mereka melanggar privasi pengguna. </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Several methods to protect user's privacy when using location based services have been proposed, including the use of anonymizing servers, blurring of information ea">Beberapa kaedah untuk melindungi privasi pengguna ketika menggunakan perkhidmatan berasaskan lokasi telah dicadangkan, penggunaan pelayan anonymizing, kabur maklumat ea </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="Methods to quantify privacy have also been proposed, to be able to calculate the equilibrium between the benefit of providing accurate location information and the drawbacks of risking personal privacy.[37] Users of such services may also choose to display more generic location information (ie">Kaedah untuk mengira privasi juga telah dicadangkan, boleh mengira keseimbangan antara manfaat menyediakan maklumat lokasi yang tepat dan kelemahan mempertaruhkan privasi peribadi. [37] Pengguna perkhidmatan tersebut juga boleh memilih untuk memaparkan maklumat lokasi yang lebih generik (iaitu </span><span style="line-height: normal;" title=""In the City" or "Philadelphia" or "Work") to some of their more casual acquaintances while only displaying specific location information, such as their exact address, to closer contacts like spouse, relatives, and good friends.">"Di Bandar" atau "Philadelphia" atau "Kerja") kepada beberapa kenalan mereka yang lebih santai manakala hanya memaparkan maklumat lokasi tertentu, seperti alamat tepat, ke kenalan rapat seperti pasangan, saudara-mara, dan rakan-rakan yang baik.</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="[edit]Privacy by design">[Sunting] Privasi oleh reka bentuk</span><span style="line-height: normal;" title="The principle of Privacy by Design states that privacy and data protection are embedded throughout the entire life cycle of technologies, from the early design stage to their deployment, use and ultimate disposal.">Prinsip Privasi oleh Design menyatakan bahawa perlindungan data dan privasi tertanam di seluruh kitaran hidup seluruh teknologi, dari peringkat reka bentuk awal pergerakan mereka, penggunaan dan pelupusan terakhir.</span></span></div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-16511573366083212672012-03-18T17:35:00.002-07:002012-03-18T17:35:32.610-07:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #303030; font-family: cursive; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17px;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://goh-kah-moi.blogspot.com/2012/03/computer-crime-and-security-threats.html" style="color: #98324c; text-decoration: none;">COMPUTER CRIME AND SECURITY THREATS</a></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Computer crime</b> refers to any crime that involves a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer">computer</a> and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer network">network</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-moore_0-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-moore-0" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kruse_1-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-kruse-1" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup> <b>Netcrime</b> refers to criminal exploitation of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-2" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> Cybercrimes are defined as: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-3" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup> Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and financial health.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-4" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup> Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hacker (computer security)">cracking</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_pornography" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Child pornography">child pornography</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_grooming" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Child grooming">child grooming</a>. There are also problems of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Privacy">privacy</a> when <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidential" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Confidential">confidential</a> information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Espionage">espionage</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theft">financial theft</a>, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nationstate is sometimes referred to as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_warfare" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyber warfare">cyber warfare</a>. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-5" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup></span></div>
<h2 style="background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #878787; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font: normal normal bold 100%/normal 'Cherry Cream Soda'; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; position: relative; text-transform: uppercase; width: auto;">
<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=1" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Topology">EDIT</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Topology"><span style="color: blue;">TOPOLOGY</span></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Generally, however, it may be divided into two categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer network or device.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from July 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:</span></div>
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<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_viruses" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer viruses"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Computer viruses</span></a></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attacks" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Denial-of-service attacks"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Denial-of-service attacks</span></a></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Malware">Malware</a> (malicious code)</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:</span></div>
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<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberstalking" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyberstalking"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Cyberstalking</span></a></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fraud">Fraud</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a></span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_warfare" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information warfare"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Information warfare</span></a></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phishing"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Phishing scams</span></a></li>
</ul>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=2" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Spam">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Spam"><span style="color: blue;">Spam</span></span></h3>
<div style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_spam" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="E-mail spam">Spam</a>, or the unsolicited sending of bulk <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Email">email</a> for commercial purposes, is unlawful <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_spam_legislation_by_country" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="E-mail spam legislation by country">in some jurisdictions</a>. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed for some time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-6" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup></span></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=3" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Fraud">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Fraud"><span style="color: blue;">Fraud</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fraud" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer fraud">Computer fraud</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:</span></div>
<ul style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: disc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: initial; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Altering <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Input/output">computer input</a> in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes;</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect;</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Altering or deleting stored data;</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-color: rgba(128, 128, 128, 0.496094); border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_fraud" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bank fraud">bank fraud</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Extortion">extortion</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Classified information">theft of classified information</a>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">A variety of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet fraud">Internet scams</a> target consumers direct.</span></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; margin-left: 5px;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">[</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=4" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Obscene or offensive content"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">edit</span></a><span style="font-size: xx-small;">]</span></span></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Obscene_or_offensive_content"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Obscene or offensive content</span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obscene" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Obscene">obscene</a> or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances these communications may be illegal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Over 25 jurisdictions place limits on certain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Freedom of speech">speech</a> and ban <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racist" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Racist">racist</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasphemy" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blasphemy">blasphemous</a>, politically subversive, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libel" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Libel">libelous</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slander" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Slander">slanderous</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seditious" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Seditious">seditious</a>, or inflammatory material that tends to incite <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crimes" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hate crimes">hate crimes</a>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">One area of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_pornography" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet pornography">Internet pornography</a> that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_pornography" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Child pornography">child pornography</a>.</span></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=5" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Harassment">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Harassment"><span style="color: blue;">Harassment</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harassment" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harassment">harassment</a> directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_bullying" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyber bullying">cyber bullying</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_stalking" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyber stalking">cyber stalking</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harassment_by_computer" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harassment by computer">harassment by computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crime" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hate crime">hate crime</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_predator" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Online predator">Online predator</a>, and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalking" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stalking">stalking</a>). Any comment that may be found derogatory or offensive is considered harassment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">There are instances where committing a crime, which involves the use of a computer, can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Iristotle/Sandbox" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="User:Iristotle/Sandbox">U.S. v. Neil Scott Kramer</a>, Kramer was served an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2011_U.S._Sentencing_Guidelines_Manual_7-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-2011_U.S._Sentencing_Guidelines_Manual-7" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup> for his use of a cell phone to “persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct.”</span></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=6" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Drug trafficking">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Drug_trafficking"><span style="color: blue;">Drug trafficking</span></span></h3>
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Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="E-mail">e-mail</a> and other Internet Technology. Some <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_trafficker" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Drug trafficker">drug traffickers</a> arrange deals at <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_cafe" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet cafe">internet cafes</a>, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms.</div>
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The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_crime&action=edit&section=7" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Cyber terrorism">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cyber_terrorism"><span style="color: blue;">Cyber terrorism</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Government officials and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information Technology">Information Technology</a> security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among federal officials<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. from October 2007">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberterrorist" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyberterrorist">cyberterrorists</a>, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. As well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Cyberextortion is a form of cyberterrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cyberextortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the domain. Perpetrators typically use a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_denial-of-service_attack" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Distributed denial-of-service attack">distributed denial-of-service attack</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-8" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup></span></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Cyber_warfare"><span style="color: purple; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Cyber warfare</span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_warfare" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyber warfare">Cyber warfare</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> (DoD) notes that cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included the attack on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>'s infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. "In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the concept of cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by warfighting military commanders in the future.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_crime#cite_note-9" style="background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup></span></div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-22819172549192204302012-02-19T17:03:00.001-08:002012-02-20T03:10:43.894-08:00<br />
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<span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"><a href="http://sinwaitan.blogspot.com/2012/02/kegunaan-it-dalam-pelbagai-bidang.html" style="text-decoration: none;">KEGUNAAN IT DALAM PELBAGAI BIDANG</a></span></h3>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">1.0. PENGENALAN</span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"> Komputer kini sedang menjadi kenyataan hidup. Komputer telah mewujudkan sistem maklumat yang amat efektif dalam membantu memperkemaskan pengurusan sesebuah organisasi. Ini menjadikannya sebagai alat yang amat diperlukan untuk segala urusan perniagaan, perindustrian, pendidikan, dan pentadbiran. Boleh dikatakan semua organisasi besar ,sama ada jabatan kerajaan atau swasta , menggunakan komputer untuk pelbagai urusan harian mereka dan ianya merupakan industri yang paling pesat di dunia masa kini.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Setiap organisasi biasanya mempunyai satu atau lebih sistem komputer besar serta beberapa unit mikrokomputer. Sistem komputer besar adalah untuk tugas-tugas pemprosesan data yang banyak sementara mikrokomputer adalah untuk kegunaan kecil seperti pemprosesan perkataan. Komputer telah menjadi sebahagian daripada kehidupan kita yang amat diperlukan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Secara amnya, penggunaan komputer boleh dibahagikan kepada beberapa kumpulan. Pertamanya untuk pemprosesan data yang banyak bagi mengelak dari beban kerja yang berulang di samping meninggikan lagi keberkesanan dalam perdagangan dan industri. Keduanya sebagai pembuat keputusan dan ramalan bagi pembuat-pembuat keputusan tentang perancangan, perkembangan, dan pertumbuhan berdasarkan data-data lalu. Selain itu, ia juga sebagai alat kawalan sistem elektrik dan bukan elektrik berdasarkan keperluan kita seperti menutup alat hawa dingin jika suhunya rendah dan menjimatkan tenaga, menyambungkan bahagian-bahagian dan sebagainya. Ia juga sebagai penghubung untuk menghubungkan data di seluruh dunia dalam masa yang singkat.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Untuk bidang-bidang penggunaan yang telah dinyatakan tadi, program-program yang diperlukan mesti dibentuk ,diuji, dan dilaksanakan pada komputer. Pelbagai program perlu ditulis dan dipautkan untuk membentuk sistem bagi tugas tertentu. Secara amnya, sistem bermakna kumpulan software dan hardware. Memandangkan sistem-sistem ini digunakan untuk memproses data atau maklumat, kita menyebutnya sistem maklumat.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.0 PENGGUNAAN KOMPUTER DALAM PELBAGAI BIDANG </span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Telah diketahui bahawa perkembangan penggunaan komputer semakin pesat sekarang. Dalam semua bidang telah menggunakan komputer bagi melancarkan urusan. </span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.1 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Perniagaan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Penggunaan komputer dipraktikkan secara semaksimumnya antaranya dalam bidang perniagaan. Malah perniagaan kecil juga menggunakan komputer memandangkan kini terdapat mikrokomputer yang murah harganya. Organisasi-organisasi perniagaan kini mempunyai jumlah fakta dan nombor yang banyak untuk diproses. Jadi, kebanyakan organisasi perniagaan telah mula menggunakan komputer,contohnya untuk mengira gaji, untuk mengesan barang-barang yang dijual dan yang masih dalam stok, untuk mengeluarkan dan menghantar atau menerima penyata perniagaan, surat, invois dan lain-lain.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Penggunaan komputer dan alat-alat pejabat yang lain yang membantu pengurus, kerani, dan pihak pengurusan disebut disebut pengautomatikan pejabat. Salah satu daripadanya ialah pemprosesan perkataan yang menggunakan kaedah menaip secara elektronik yang membolehkan kita menghasil dan mengubah surat, laporan, dokumen, dan lain-lain dalam beberapa saat berbanding kerja menaip secara manual. Banyak pejabat menghasilkan surat-surat piawai seperti pembayaran baki, jemputan dan sebagainya lagi. Selain itu organisasi perniagaan setempat menggunakan komputer untuk menyedia, menyimpan, dan menghantar utusan ke tempat tertentu. Pengurus organisasi itu juga boleh mengawasi kakitangannya bila-bila masa.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Pengautomatikan pejabat juga membolehkan pihak pengurusan atasan berunding tanpa bertemu secara fizikal yang disebut teleperundingan. Antara kelebihan penggunaan komputer dalam bidang ini, ternyatalah ianya amat penting dalam sesebuah organisasi perniagaan.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.2 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bank Dan Institusi Kewangan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Pemprosesan data yang melibatkan akaun-akaun simpanan, simpanan tetap, pinjaman, pelaburan, analisis keuntungan dan sebagainya adalah antara operasi organisasi-organisasi kewangan. Langkah-langkah yang digunakan adalah piawai dan berulangan. Maka dengan itulah, institusi kewangan merupakan pengguna yang pertama sedar akan kepentingan komputer untuk menjimatkan masa. Penggunaannya dalam institusi kewangan ini meliputi aktiviti pemindahan wang secara elektronik</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Misalannya sebuah bank mempunyai terminal di setiap cawangannya di seluruh negara dan juga di pasaraya, stesen minyak, sekolah, kilang, rumah, hotel, dan sebagainya. Majikan akan memindahkan gaji ke dalam akaun pekerjanya dengan memasukkan nombor pengenalan pekerjanya seterusnya wang gaji dipindahkan ke dalam akaun pasaraya, hotel, atau stesen minyak apabila membuat sesuatu pembelian. Kemudahan pemindahan wang ini yang disebut pemindahan wang secara elektronik ini amat efektif penggunaannya juga kaedah yang selamat dan cepat untuk urusan kewangan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Dengan kemudahan yang dikenali sebagai ETC ini juga individu itu bolah mengeluar, memindah, dan memasukkan tunai atau cek ke dalam baki semasa pada bila-bila masa sahaja. Ternyatalah tujuan utama penggunaan komputer dalam institusi kewangan dapat membantu dalam menyusun segala urusan pelanggan serta menyediakan perkhidmatan yang lebih baik dan cekap, mengurangkan penipuan dalam urusan kewangan juga menghapus urusan yang melibatkan wang tunai dalam masyarakat dengan matlamat utama untuk menghasilkan sebuah masyarakat tanpa tunai.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.3 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Industri</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Industri merupakan bidang yang banyak sekali menerima faedah daripada penggunaan komputer dan juga perkembangan mesin berupa manusia iaitu ‘robot’. Industri pengeluaran misalnya memerlukan komputer untuk memproses banyak data yang dikumpul dari pekerja, pelanggan, jualan, keterangan barangan, jadual pengeluaran, dan sebagainya. Boleh dikatakan komputer digunakan bagi mengawal proses pengeluaran.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Pemprosesan maklumat pengeluaran khasnya kawalan inventori bagi menyimpan maklumat terbaru tentang baki inventori bahan-bahan mentah dan juga barangan siap digunakan untuk menentukan nilai inventori dan status stok. Hal ini komputer boleh mengingatkan kakitangan terlibat bila dia harus memesan bahan-bahan mentah dan bila untuk menghantar barangan siap kepada pelanggan. Begitu juga untuk menyimpan maklumat tentang struktur sesuatu barangan, perancangan keperluan bahan malah dalam kerja proses turut menggunakan komputer bagi memudahkan pekerjaan. Ternyatalah penggunaan komputer dalam bidang industri amat meluas serta turut mempengaruhi perkembangan industri di sesebuah negara.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.4 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Pendidikan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Kini dalam era dunia sains dan teknologi yang semakin canggih, komputer mungkin mengambil alih peranan buku dalam menyimpan dan menyebarkan pengetahuan kepada orang ramai. Dengan kata lain komputer akan mengubah cara kita belajar dan cara kita menyimpan pengetahuan. Hal-hal yang berkaitan contohnya pendaftaran pelajar, penjadualan kelas, pemprosesan keputusan peperiksaan, penyimpanan peribadi pelajar dan guru boleh dilaksanakan oleh komputer dengan berkesan dan cepat dalam membantu pihak pentadbiran.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Kini keputusan SPM dan STPM turut diproses oleh komputer. Di IPT juga tugas-tugas pengautomatikan pejabat, pemprosesan keputusan peperiksaan dan penyelidikan saintifik turut menggunakan komputer. Malah mengkatalog buku-buku di perpustakaan juga mengaplikasikan penggunaan komputer. Tidak ketinggalan diguna untuk proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bukan sahaja di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi juga di sekolah-sekolah, baik untuk mengajar dengan bantuan komputer atau belajar pendidikan tentang komputer.Oleh itu komputer kini sangat dititikberatkan dalam bidang pendidikan untuk menbantu dalam proses pentadbiran, penyelidikan juga apa yang penting ialah memudahkan serta membantu pelajar dan guru dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. </span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.5 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Perubatan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Hospital dan klinik menggunakan komputer untuk menyimpan rekod pesakit, jadual doktor, jururawat dan kakitangan lain, inventori dan belian ubat-ubatan, penyelidikan perubatan dan juga diagnosis perubatan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Pengaplikasian peralatan-peralatan berasaskan komputer atau penggunaan teknologi maklumat telah membantu para doktor untuk mendiagnosis penyakit. Ternyata penggunaan komputer dalam bidang perubatan menyediakan penyelesaian kepada masalah-masalah rumit. Antaranya teknologi komputer yang baru menyediakan pelbagai bantuan kepada mereka yang cacat. Mikropemproses yang berasaskan sistem suara membantu orang-orang yang cacat percakapan dengan menggunakan terminal yang mengarahkan komputer untuk melakukan sesuatu tugas secara lisan. Begitu juga perkembangan komputer telah membantu orang buta untuk melihat, orang bisu untuk berkomunikasi, sama ada dengan bantuan percakapan pensintesis atau dengan menggunakan papan kekunci. Ini dapat membantu mereka menjadi lebih aktif dan dapat membuat apa yang mereka tidak boleh buat sebelum ini.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Selain itu kerja-kerja pemprosesan data secara tradisional seperti mengeluarkan bil pesakit, statistik perubatan dan penjadualan kakitangan dan lain-lain telah turut diperkemas dan diproses dengan menggunakan komputer. Sistem Maklumat Hospital yang digunakan dapat disimpan dalam pangkalan data pesakit secara berpusat. Malah penggunaan teknologi maklumat iaitu komputer diprogramkan untuk mengkultur dan manganalisis bakteria, virus, dan agen jangkitan lain secara automatik bagi mengesan dan mengenalpasti sesuatu penyakit seterusnya membolehkan pihak hospital dan makmal untuk memulakan rawatan. Contohnya mesin Temography Bantuan Komputer (Computer Aided Temography, CAT) yang digunakan untuk trjuan tersebut.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Begitu juga komputer digunakan untuk mengaawasi pembolehubah psikologi seseorang pesakit seperti tekanan darah, suhu badan, ECG (Electro-Cardiograph) dan membunyikan amaran jika sesuatu yang tidak biasa berlaku. Untuk tujuan ini komputer membaca pembolehubah yang berlainan dan membuat pembandingan dengan nilai-nilai piawai. Jika ada sesuatu yang luar biasa yang berlaku komputer akan menarik perhatian doktor dan jururawat dengan mengeluarkan amaran. Jelaslah didapati bahawa komputer mempunyai bidang pergunaan yang luas dalam bidang perubatan.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.6 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Perundangan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Komputer telah digunakan dalam proses perundangan sejak beberapa tahun dahulu. Penggunaan yang terpenting ialah dalam penyediaan dokumen yang menggunakan pemproses perkataan. Penggunaan komputer juga melibatkan pemprosesan perakaunan perundangan untuk menghasilkan laporan mingguan dan bulanan, menyimpan rekod-rekod pembayaran perundingan, dairi untuk peguam mendapat maklumat mutakhir tentang pelbagai pelanggang dan prosedur mahkamah juga untuk menyimpan rekod-rekod pelanggang.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Memandangan bidang ini sangat rumit, sudah menjadi keperluan untuk mendapatkan semula maklumat yang diperlukan sama ada tentang penindeksan jurnal undang-undang, kes penting, perkalaan, dan statistik atau keputusan penting untuk tujuan membuat keputusan dengan menyimpan bank data perundangan. Oleh itu penggunaan komputer salah satunya akan membantu peguam dan peguam pelatih serta pelajar perundangan mencari data berkaitan tanpa membuang masa serta mendapat perkhidmatan yang lebih baik. </span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.7 Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Kerajaan</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Sektor kerajaan merupakan salah satu pengguna terbesar yang mempraktikkan penggunaan komputer dalam melaksanakan hal-hal pertadbiran. Segala data yang diperlukan dapat diperoleh dalam jangka masa yang pendek misalnya maklumat tentang penduduk, perkhidmatan perancangan ekonomi, projek pembangunan negeri dan sebagainya untuk membuat perancangan serta membuat keputusan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Melalui komputer ramalan cuaca jangka panjang kini boleh dilakukan. Dengan tiu kehilangan nyawa dapat dilakukan kerana adanya maklumat yang lebih baik dan pantas. Kejayaan Neil Amstrong pada 23 Julai 1969 mendarat di bulan juga dijayakan dengan bantuan komputer yang digunakan untuk merekabentuk kapal angkasa, baju angkasa untuk angkasawan, dan juga jadual penerbangan. Ini menunjukkan begitu pentingnya penggunaan komputer dalam bidang pengangkutan angkasa.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Perkhidmatan pengutipan cukai dan cukai pendapatan turut dipermudah dengan menggunakan komputer. Penyimpanan rekod pembayar cukai yang dilakukan secara manual serta mendatangkan pelbagai masalah telah ditangani dengan penggunaan danperkhidmatan komputer yang dapat melakukan tugas tersebut dengan lebih cekap dan cepat. Begitu juga dalam bidang ketenteraan, komputer digunakan dari menyimpan inventori hinggalah mengadakan simulasi peperangan di skrin. Komputer juga digunakan untuk mengikut pergerakan musuh di kawasan sempadan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Satu sistem komputer juga diguna untuk mengawal pengaliran trafik di bandar. Aliran trafik dapat diurus dengan berkesan dengan mengesan arah trafik yang banyak dengan menggunakan alat-alat pengesan. Melalui cara ini, jika terdapat lebih banyak kenderaan dari satu arah, komputer akan membiarkan lampu hijau menyala untuk jangka masa yang sesuai. Dalam bidang pengangkutan, COSMOS-11 diperkenal oleh Mas dengan memberikan kemudahan kepada penumpang untuk mengetahui status penempahan merekatermasuk penempahan hotel, dari mana-mana tempat di dunia. Begitu juga urusan pendaftaran pemilik dan kenderaan dapat dilaksanakan dengan penggunaan komputer. Hinggakan telah diperkenalkan juga penggunaan komputer untuk menjalankan kenderaan-kenderaan penumpang tanpa kawalan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Banyak lagi segala urusan-urusan pentadbiran diurus dengan menggunakan komputer. Ini bukan hanya dapat menjimatkan masa malah dapat melakukan segala urusan dengan lebih praktikal. </span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.8. Penggunaan Komputer Dalam Bidang Muzik, Tarian, Sukan, dan Seni</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Sekarang ini komputer boleh diprogramkan untuk bermain muzik. Tempat-tempat hiburan mempunyai muzik yang dikawal oleh komputer dengan lebih murah dan boleh digunakan pada bila-bila masa sahaja. Komputer juga digunakan untuk mengatur susunan tarian dan juga muzik.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Setiap permainan memerlukan pergerakan. Pergerakan terbaik boleh didapati dengan analisis terperinci tentang sistem fizikal seseorang. Olahragawan olimpik yang terkenal, pemain tenis semuanya menggunakan komputer untuk menganalisis prestasi sambil mereka bermain dengan menggunakan penderia tubuh. Pemain-pemain tersebut mngikut arahan-arahan komputer untuk memperbaiki permainan mereka.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Komputer juga boleh diprogramkan untuk melukis gambar yang berkualiti tinggi . Melukis dengan menggunakan komputer mempercepatkan proses mencipta. Kerja-kerja seni boleh dilakukan dan dibuat kajian semula dalam waktu yang singkat jika dibandingkan dengan kedah tradisional. Filem-filem kartun yang dihasilkan oleh komputer telah berkembang dengan begitu meluas.</span><br />
<b><span style="background-color: white;">2.9. Penggunaan Komputer di Rumah</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Penggunaan komputer di rumah bermula dari bermain, membeli-belah hinggalah pemindahan bayaran. Mikrokomputer dugunakan juga di rumah untuk mengawal keselamatan di samping mengawal hawa dingin dan lampu. Penggunaan komputer di rumah membolehkan surirumah mendapat maklumat terbaru tentang fesyen dan boleh membuat pesanan kepada pasarayadengan menggunakan teleteks dan video. Juga untuk merancang belanjawan dan inventori di rumah. Ini semua boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakan mikrokomputer yang disambungkan pada bank data kebangsaan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Kanak-kanak boleh menggunakan komputer untuk mempelajari mata pelajaran sekolah atau permainan pendidikan. Memang jelaslah komputer telah menjadi mesin maklumat dalam masyarakat kita.</span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white;">3.0 PENUTUP</span></b><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Perkembangan pesat dunia sains dan teknologi telah mengubah corak hidup masyarakat kini. Segala urusan, pemprosesan, pengumpulan maklumat-maklumat, atau apa juga aspek-aspek dalam pelbagai bidang yang dahulunya dilakukan secara manual, yang memberikan banyak risiko daripadanya telah berjaya dilakukan dengan lebih efektif, cepat, serta lebih praktikal dengan pengaplikasian atau penggunaan teknologi maklumat atau komputer.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Penggunaannya yang mencakupi dalam pelbagai bidang antaranya dalam bidang perniagaan, institusi kewangan, industri, pendidikan, pentadbiran dan lain-lain bidang lagi telah merealisasikan hasrat untuk memajukansesebuah negara. Hakikatnya kini, komputer telah menjadi nadi dan tulang belakang masyarakat hari ini. Apa jua bidang,pengkomputeran telah banyak mengambil-alih tugas manusia. Ia bukan sahaja dapat membantu dalam pengiraan, menyimpan maklumat, mengesan sesuatu juga membuat keputusan untuk meningkatkan keberkesanan dan produktiviti.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"> Maka dengan itu jelaslah dikatakan kini bahawa penggunaan komputer telah meluas dipraktikkan dan digunakan. Bersesuaian dengan dunia globalisasi dan tanpa sempadan, komputer merupakan mesin maklumat dalam masyarakat kini juga merupakan nadi penggerak semua jentera pentadbitan dalam apa juga bidang. </span></div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-9012966996353580692012-02-19T17:02:00.001-08:002012-02-20T03:09:48.189-08:00<br />
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<a href="http://sinwaitan.blogspot.com/2012/01/komputer.html" style="color: #b4a7d6; text-decoration: none;">KOMPUTER</a></h3>
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<b>Komputer</b> merupakan <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mesin">mesin</a> <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atur_cara_komputer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atur cara komputer">boleh atur cara</a> yang direka untuk membaca dan melaksanakan urutan sesebuah senarai arahan yang membuatkan ia melakukan operasi aritmetik dan logik berdasarkan angka binari. Pada asasnya, komputer terdiri dari <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer#Ingatan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Komputer">ingatan</a> jangka pendek dan ingatan jangka panjang untuk peyimpanan data; dan <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_pemprosesan_pusat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Unit pemprosesan pusat">unit pemprosesan pusat</a> yang berfungsi sebagai <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_kawalan&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Unit kawalan (tidak wujud)">unit kawalan</a> serta mengandungi <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_logik_aritmetik&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Unit logik aritmetik (tidak wujud)">unit logik aritmetik</a>. Aksesori (contohnya papan kekunci, tetikus atau kad grafik) boleh dihubungkan supaya komputer dapat menerima input luar dan memaparkan output.</div>
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Unit pemproses komputer melaksanakan siri arahan yang membuatkan ia membaca, memanipulasi dan kemudian menyimpan <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_(pengkomputeran)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Data (pengkomputeran) (tidak wujud)">data</a>. Ujian dan arahan loncat membenarkannya untuk bergerak di dalam ruang program dan oleh itu melaksanakan arahan berlainan sebagai fungsi dari kedudukan semasa dari mesin itu atau persekitarannya.</div>
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Komputer boleh juga bertindak balas terhadap <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampukan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sampukan">sampukan</a> yang membuatkan ia melaksanakan set arahan tertentu dan kemudian kembali meneruskan apa yang ia sedang buat sebelum <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampukan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sampukan">sampukan</a>.</div>
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Komputer elektronik pertama telah dibangunkan pada pertengahan abad ke-20 (1940-1945). Dengan saiz seumpama sebuah bilik besar, ia memerlukan kuasa yang banyak seumpama beberapa ratus <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer_peribadi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Komputer peribadi">komputer peribadi</a> (PC) moden.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">[1]</a></sup></div>
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Komputer moden yang berasaskan <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litar_bersepadu" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Litar bersepadu">litar bersepadu</a> adalah berjuta, malah berbilion kali lebih berupaya berbanding komputer-komputer terawal, dan memerlukan ruang yang kecil sahaja.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">[2]</a></sup> Komputer ringkas adalah cukup kecil untuk dimuatkan dalam <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peranti_mudah_alih&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Peranti mudah alih (tidak wujud)">peranti mudah alih</a>, dan <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Komputer_mudah_alih&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Komputer mudah alih (tidak wujud)">komputer mudah alih</a> boleh dikuasakan dengan bateri kecil. Komputer peribadi dalam berbagai reka bentuk adalah <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lambang&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Lambang (tidak wujud)">lambang</a> <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Era_Maklumat&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Era Maklumat (tidak wujud)">Era Maklumat</a> dan apa yang kebanyakan orang anggap sebagai "komputer". Pun begitu, <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sistem_terbenam&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Sistem terbenam (tidak wujud)">komputer terbenam</a> yang didapati dalam pelbagai alat, daripada <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pemain_audio_digital&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Pemain audio digital (tidak wujud)">pemain MP3</a> sehinggalah <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_pejuang&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Jet pejuang (tidak wujud)">jet pejuang</a> dan daripada <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permainan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Permainan">permainan</a> sehinggalah <a class="new" href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robot_industri&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Robot industri (tidak wujud)">robot industri</a> adalah yang paling banyak.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-10149290382063054782012-02-19T17:01:00.001-08:002012-02-19T17:01:40.751-08:00<br />
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<a href="http://sinwaitan.blogspot.com/2012/02/computer-ethics.html" style="color: #b4a7d6; text-decoration: none;">COMPUTER ETHICS</a></h3>
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Ethics is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individual. Therefore, computer ethics is set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers. Some common issues of computer ethics include intellectual property rights (such as copyrighted electronic content), privacy concerns, and how computers affect society.</div>
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For example, while it is easy to duplicate copyrighted electronic (or <a href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/digital" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #0055cc; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">digital</a>) content, computer ethics would suggest that it is wrong to do so without the author's approval. And while it may be possible to access someone's personal information on a computer system, computer ethics would advise that such an action is unethical.</div>
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As technology advances, computers continue to have a greater impact on society. Therefore, computer ethics promotes the discussion of how much influence computers should have in areas such as artificial intelligence and human communication. As the world of computers evolves, computer ethics continues to create ethical standards that address new issues raised by new technologies.</div>
</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5629091427080658661.post-91224480157356948582012-02-19T16:59:00.001-08:002012-02-19T16:59:12.379-08:00<br />
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<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Komputer">Komputer</a> adalah alat yang dipakai untuk mengolah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Data">data</a> menurut perintah yang telah dirumuskan. Kata komputer semula dipergunakan untuk menggambarkan orang yang perkerjaannya melakukan per<a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitungan_aritmatika&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Hitungan aritmatika (halaman belum tersedia)">hitungan aritmatika</a>, dengan atau tanpa alat bantu, tetapi arti kata ini kemudian dipindahkan kepada <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mesin">mesin</a> itu sendiri. Asal mulanya, pengolahan informasi hampir eksklusif berhubungan dengan masalah<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aritmatika" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aritmatika">aritmatika</a>, tetapi komputer modern dipakai untuk banyak tugas yang tidak berhubungan dengan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematika" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Matematika">matematika</a>.</div>
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Secara luas, Komputer dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu peralatan elektronik yang terdiri dari beberapa komponen, yang dapat bekerja sama antara komponen satu dengan yang lain untuk menghasilkan suatu informasi berdasarkan program dan data yang ada. Adapun komponen komputer adalah meliputi : Layar Monitor, CPU, Keyboard, Mouse dan Printer (sbg pelengkap). Tanpa printer komputer tetap dapat melakukan tugasnya sebagai pengolah data, namun sebatas terlihat dilayar monitor belum dalam bentuk print out (kertas).</div>
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Dalam definisi seperti itu terdapat alat seperti <a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slide_rule&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Slide rule (halaman belum tersedia)">slide rule</a>, jenis <a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalkulator_mekanik&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Kalkulator mekanik (halaman belum tersedia)">kalkulator mekanik</a> mulai dari <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abakus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Abakus">abakus</a> dan seterusnya, sampai semua komputer elektronik yang <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontemporer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kontemporer">kontemporer</a>. Istilah lebih baik yang cocok untuk arti luas seperti "komputer" adalah "yang mem<a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proses_informasi&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Proses informasi (halaman belum tersedia)">proses informasi</a>" atau "<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sistem">sistem</a> peng<a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olah_informasi&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Olah informasi (halaman belum tersedia)">olah informasi</a>."</div>jia tanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09149636748585512808noreply@blogger.com0